Office: MH 290B   Phone: 713.743.4692

This course provides the foundation for further PhD level work in information systems (IS) and is particularly helpful in preparing students for their comprehensive exams in IS. The course is largely theoretical; designed to provide a perspective on the current research literature so that students learn how to identify different research orientations and build an informed opinion on critical research issues which will help them in developing their thesis proposals. The primary focus of the course is on the current research programs in IS and the philosophical assumptions which underlie them. The course will explore the various schools of thought which exist on IS, analyzing their special sets of assumptions which distinguishes one from another. The most important assumptions relate to what information systems are (the ontology of IS), and how to acquire knowledge about them (epistemology). Different IS research epistemologies can be characterized by the ideal of knowledge to which each of them adheres, and the particular preferred approaches for obtaining knowledge. As not all epistemologies are equally well represented in actual research programs, orthodox and "emerging" research programs will be explored. The course will also consider how other Management Studies disciplines deal with the same fundamental issues faced by IS researchers (e.g. what is truth, what is knowledge) as well as exploring the role of the researcher within the larger IS community.

                Course Participation.....................10%
                Assignment 1.................................20%
                Assignment 2.................................20%
                Final Project...................................50%

Week            Topic                                       Discussant                   Reading

8/30           Course Introduction                     Hirschheim

9/6             Basic Foundations I                     Hirschheim                  H85

9/14            Basic Foundations II                   Hirschheim                  H85

9/20            IS Research Schools                   Hirschheim                  notes, HKL95

9/27            Philsophical Classics I                 students

10/4            Philsophical Classics II                students

10/11           Application in Other                  Dr. Anne Jacobson (UH)
                    Disciplines                                  (guest speaker)

10/18           Exploration of Paradigms I          Hirschheim              HKL95

10/25           Exploration of Paradigms II         Hirschheim              HKL95

11/1            Beyond Paradigms I                      Hirschheim              HKL96

11/8            Beyond Paradigms II                    Hirschheim              HKL96, GH2000

11/15           Roadmap of the IS 
                    Literature I                                   students

11/22           Roadmap of the IS 
                    Literature II                                  students

11/29           Role of IS Researcher                   
                      in the IS Community                  Hirschheim                   KH87

        
(1.)    Basic Foundations

                -Knowledge (episteme vs. doxa) and science
                -Epistemology and ontology
                -Research:  value free vs. value laden
                -Historical perspective:  from the Greeks to present
                -Research paradigms:  in particular, Burrell & Morgan

(2.)    IS Research Schools and Lines of Descendants

                -Stockholm School (Langefors)
                -Minnesota School (Davis & Dickson)
                -STS School (Emery/Trist; Mumford)
                -Churchman's Inquiry Systems (Churchman)
                -Soft Systems (Checkland)
                -ISDOS School (Teichroew)
                -Other Schools (Semiotic; Harvard)
                -Emerging Schools
                        -Interactionist
                        -Speech-Act
                        -Trade Unionist
                        -Professional Work Practice
                        -Critical Social Theory
                        
(3.)    Philosophical Classics

                -Kuhn
                -Popper
                -Kant
                -Hegel
                -Wittgenstein
                -Giddens
                -Habermas
                -Derrida
                -Foucault
                
(4.)    Other Disciplines

                How have other disciplines (within and outside management studies) dealt with these issues?
                - accounting with AOS, AMIT articles
                - organization behavior with Journal of Management Studies, ASQ, Academy of Management Review articles
                - marketing with Journal of Marketing and Journal of Consumer Research articles

(5.)    Exploration of IS Paradigms

                A)      Single Paradigm
                        1) Functionalist IS
                        2) Social Relativist IS
                        3) Radical Structuralist IS
                        4) Neohumanist IS

                B)      Beyond Single Paradigm
                        Checkland's SSM
                        Wood-Harper's Multiview
                        Schaefer's FAOR
        
                C)      Will there be a paradigm shift?
                         Banville & Landry; Klein & Hirschheim; Hirschheim & Klein, Goles & Hirschheim

(6.)    Beyond Paradigms

Control, Sense-making, and Argumentation: Using domains and orientations as
 a basis for thinking about IS (Hirschheim, Klein and Lyytinen, 1996) see also Goles and Hirschheim 2000 'The Paradign is Dead' paper


(7.)    Roadmap of IS Literature

                A) Research Frameworks
                B) Organizational Consideration
                C) IS Design (Involvement)
                D) ISD (Analysis)
                E) Lab Experiments
                F) ISD (Cognitive Style)
                G) IS Value
                H) User Satisfaction
                I) Implementation
                J) Client/Server Computing
                K) Education
                L) DSS/GDSS
                M) MIS Management
                N) Programmers
                O) Multimedia
                P) Information Sources
                Q) Research Methodology
                R) End-User Computing
                S) CSCW
                T) Internet - social aspects
                U) Electronic Commerce - business aspects
                V) Interorganizational Systems
                W) Alliances
                X) Outsourcing
                Y) Global IT
                Z) Intranet

(8.)    Role of IS Researcher in the IS Community

                -how to function responsibility within the IS community
                        -community structure (guild system)
                        -science as a social process
                        -ethics
                        -research practice & academic citizenship

Burrell, G. and G. Morgan (1979): Sociological Paradigms and Organizational Analysis, Heinemann. (especially chpts 1-3, 8, 11)

Kuhn, T. (1970): The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, University of Chicago Press, 2nd ed.

Brown, S., J. Fauvel, and R. Finnegan (eds.) (1981): Concepts of Inquiry, Open University Press.

Lessnoff, M. (1974): The Structure of Social Science, George Allen & Unwin.

Chalmers, T. (1982): What is This Thing Called Science?, Open University Press.

Berger, P. and T. Luckmann (1967): The Social Construction of Reality, Penguin Books.
 

Others (Philosophical):

Reason, P. and J. Rowan (eds.) (1981): Human Inquiry, J. Wiley & Sons.

Popper, K., (1972): Objective Knowledge, Oxford University Press.

Popper, K., (1963): Conjectures & Refutations, Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Morgan, G. (ed.) (1983): Beyond Method, Sage.

Fay, B. (1975): Social Theory & Political Practice, George Allen & Unwin.

Giddens, A., (1976): New Rules of Sociological Method, Hutchinson.

Polanyi, M. (1958): Personal Knowledge, University of Chicago Press.

Churchman, C.W. (1971): The Design of Inquiry Systems, Basic Books.

Lakatos, I. and A. Musgrave, (1967): Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge, Cambridge University Press.

Bleicher, J. (1982): The Hermeneutic Imagination, Routledge & Kegan Paul.

McCarthy, T. (1978): The Critical Theory of Jurgen Habermas, MIT Press.

Others (specific to IS)

Galliers, R. (1992), Information Systems Research: Issues, Methods and Practical Guidelines, Blackwell Scientific, Oxford.

Galliers, R. and Currie, W. (1999), Rethinking MIS, Oxford University Press.

Goles, T. and Hirschheim, R. (2000), "The Paradigm is Dead, the Paradigm is Dead …Long Live the Paradigm:
The Legacy of Burrell and Morgan", OMEGA, Vol. 28, pp. 249-268.

Hirschheim, R., (1985): "Information Systems Epistemology: An Historical Perspective", in Research Methods in Information Systems, E. Mumford, R. Hirschheim, G. Fitzgerald and T. Wood­Harper, (eds.), North­Holland, Amsterdam, pp.13­35.

Hirschheim, R., Klein, H.K., and Lyytinen, K. (1996): "Exploring the Intellectual Structures of Information Systems Development: A Social Action Theoretic Analysis", Accounting, Management and Information Technologies, Vol.6, No.1, 1996

Hirschheim, R., Klein, H.K. and Lyytinen, K. (1995): Information Systems Development and Data Modeling: Conceptual and Philosophical Foundations, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Hirschheim, R. and H. Klein (1994): "Realizing Emancipatory Principles in Information Systems Development: The Case for ETHICS", MIS Quarterly, March, pp.83-105.

Klein, H. and R. Hirschheim, (1987): "Social Change and the Future of Information Systems Development", in Critical Issues in Information Systems Research, R. Boland and R. Hirschheim, (eds.), J. Wiley, Chichester, pp.275­305.

Lee, A., Liebenau, J., and DeGross, J. (Eds.) (1997) Information Systems and Qualitative Research. Chapman & Hall, London.

Mumford, E., R. Hirschheim, G. Fitzgerald, and T. Wood-Harper (1985): Research Methods in Information Systems, North-Holland. (especially the papers: Hirschheim, Lyytinen and Klein, Klein and Lyytinen, Boland, Galliers)

Nissen, H-E, Klein, H. and Hirschheim, R. (eds.) (1991): Information Systems Research: Contemporary Approaches and Emergent Traditions, North-Holland.
 

(II) Additional Readings

Achterberg, J., van Es, G. and Heng, M. (1991). Information Systems Research in the Postmodern Period. In Nissen, H-E., Klein, H.K. and Hirschheim, R. (Eds.). Information Systems Research: Contemporary Approaches and Emergent Traditions. Amsterdam: North-Holland. 281-294

Ackoff, R. (1971): "Towards a system of systems concepts," Management Science, 17(11), pp. 661-671.

Alavi, M., Carlson, P. and Brooke, G. (1989): "The Ecology of MIS Research: A Twenty Year Status Review," in DeGross, J., Henderson, J., and Konsynski, B. (eds), Proceedings of the Tenth ICIS, Boston, pp. 363-374.

Alexander, J., (ed.) (1985), Neofunctionalism, Sage Publications, Beverly Hills.

Alvesson, M., and Willmott, H. (eds.) (1992): Critical Management Studies, Sage Publications, London.

Andersen, N., Kensing, F., Lundin, J., Mathiassen, L, Munk-Madsen, A., Rasbech, M., and Sorgaard, P. (1990): Professional Systems Development: Experience, Ideas and Action. Hemel Hempstead: Prentice-Hall International.

Anderson, P. (1983), "Marketing, Scientific Progress, and Scientific Method," Journal of Marketing, 46 (Fall), 18-31.

Anderson, P. (1986), "On Method in Consumer Research: A Critical Relativist Perspective," Journal of Consumer Research, 13 (September), 155-173.

Apel, Karl-Otto, (1980), The Transformation of Philosophy, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London.

Argyris, C. (1971). Management Information Systems: The Challenge to Rationality and Emotionality. Management Science, Vol. 17, pp. B 275-292.

Argyris, C. and Schon, D. (1978), Theory in Practice. Increasing Professional Effectiveness. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Argyris, C. (1982), Learning and Action: Individual and Organizational. San Francisco: Jossey­Bass.

Avison, D., Kendall, J. and DeGross, J. (eds.) (1993): Human, Organizational, and Social Dimensions of Information Systems Development, North-Holland, Amsterdam.

Avison, D., Lau, F., Myers, M., and Nielsen, P.A. (1999), Action Research. Communications of the ACM 42, No. 1, 94-97

Backhouse, J., Liebenau, J. and Land, F. (1991): "On the Discipline of Information Systems", Journal of Information Systems, Vol. 1, No. 1, January, pp. 19-27.

Bansler, J. and Havn, E., (1991), "The Nature of Software Work." In Vanden Besselaar, P., Clement, A., and Jarvinen, P. (Eds.), Information System Work and Organizational Design. Amsterdam: North-Holland. 145-152

Banville, C. (1990), Legitimacy and Cognitive Mapping: An Exporatory Study of a Social Dimension of Organizational Information Systems. Ph.D. Thesis, Faculte Des Sciences De L'Administration, Universite Laval, Quebec.

Banville, C. and Landry, M., Can the field of MIS be disciplined?, Communications of the ACM, Vol.32, No.1, January 1989, pp. 48-60.

Bariff, M. and Ginzberg, M., MIS and the behavioral sciences: research patterns and perspectives, in Proceedings of the First Conference on Information Systems, E. McLean (ed.), Philadelphia, December 1980, pp. 49-58.

Barley, S. (1986): Technology as an occasion for structuring: evidence from observations of CT scanners and the social order of radiology departments. Administrative Science Quarterly. 31(1) March, 78-108.

Baskerville, R., Smithson, S., Ngwenyama, O. and DeGross, J. (eds.) (1994): Transforming Organizations with Information Technology, North-Holland, Amsterdam.

Beath, C. and Orlikowski, W., (1994): "The Contradictory Structure of Systems Development Methdologies: Deconstructing the IS-User Relationship in Information Engineering", Information Systems Research, Vol.5, No.4, pp.350-377.

Bhaskar, R. (1975), A Realist Theory of Science, Leeds: Leeds Books.

Bjerknes, G., Ehn, P. and Kyng, M. (eds.), Computers and Democracy - A Scandinavian Challenge, Avebury, Aldershot, 1987.

Benbasat, I., Goldstein, D. and Mead, M. (1987), The case research strategy in studies of information systems, MIS Quarterly, Vol.11, No.3, September, pp. 369-386.

Benbasat, I. (ed.) (1989): The Information Systems Research Challenge: Experimental Research Methods - Vol.2. Boston: Harvard University Press.

Benbasat, I. and Weber, R. (1996) Rethinking Diversity in Information Systems Research. Information Systems Research 7, No.4, 389-399.

Benbasat, I. and Zmud, R. (1999) Empirical Research in Information Systems: The Practice of Relevance. MIS Quarterly 23, No. 1, 3-16.

Berger, P. and Luckmann, T., The Social Construction of Reality, (New York Basic Books, 1967).

Bleicher, J., The Hermeneutic Imagination: Outline of a Positive Critique of Scientism and Sociology, (Henley: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1982).

Blumenthal, S. 1969. Management Information Systems, A Framework for Planning and Development. Englewood Cliffs, Prentice Hall.

Bodker, S. 1991. Activity Theory as a Challenge to Systems Design. In Nissen, H-E., Klein, H.K., Hirschheim, R. (Eds.), Information Systems Research: Contemporary Approaches and Emergent Traditions. Amsterdam: North-Holland, pp. 551-564.

Bodker, S., Ehn, P., Kammersgaard, J., Kyng, M., and Sundblad, Y. (1987). A UTOPIAN Experience: On Design of Powerful Computer­Based Tools for Skilled Graphic Workers. In Bjerknes, G., Ehn, P. and Kyng, M. (Eds.), Computers and Democracy: A Scandinavian Challenge. Aldershot: Avebury. 251­278.

Boland, R. J., 1978, "The Process and Product of System Design", Management Science, Vol 28, No 9, pp. 887-898.

Boland, R. J., Control, Causality and Information System Requirements, Accounting, Organizations and Society, Vol 4, No 4, (1979) pp. 259­272.

Boland, R. J., Phenomenology: A Preferred Approach to Research on Information Systems, in Research Methods in Information Systems, ed. E. Mumford, R. Hirschheim, G. Fitzgerald, and A. T. Wood-Harper, (Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1985) pp. 193­203.

Boland, R., "The In­Formation of Information Systems", in Boland, R. and Hirschheim, R. (eds.), Critical Issues in Information Systems Research, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 1987, pp.363­379.

Boland, R. (1989): Metaphorical Traps in Developing Information Systems for Human Progress. In H. Klein and K. Kumar (eds.), Systems Development for Human Progress. Amsterdam: North-Holland. 277-290.

Boland, R. 1991. Information System Use as a Hermeneutic Process. In Nissen, H­E, Klein, H. and Hirschheim, R. (Eds.), Information Systems Research: Contemporary Approaches and Emergent Traditions. Amsterdam: North­Holland. 439-458.

Boland, R. J. and Day, W., The Process of System Design: A Phenomenological Approach, in Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Information Systems, (eds.) M. Ginzberg and C. Ross, (Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1982) pp. 31­45.

Boland, R. and R. Hirschheim (eds.), Critical Issues in Information Systems Research, J. Wiley & Sons, Chichester, April 1987 (especially the papers: Lyytinen, Stamper, Banbury, Boland, Klein and Hirschheim)

Braverman, H., (1974), Labor and Monopoly Capital, Monthly Review Press, New York.

Briefs, U., Ciborra, C. and Schneider, L. (eds.), Systems Design For, With, and By the Users, North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1983.

Burrell, G. and Morgan, G. Sociological Paradigms and Organizational Analysis, Heinemann, London, 1979.

Cash, J. and Lawrence, P. (eds.) (1989): The Information Systems Research Challenge: Qualitative Research Methods - Vol.1. Boston: Harvard University Press.

Checkland, P., Systems Thinking, Systems Practice, (Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 1981).

Checkland, P. and Scholes, J., Soft Systems Methodology in Practice, Wiley, Chichester, 1990.

Chua, W., Radical developments in accounting thought, Accounting Review, Vol.61, No.4, October 1986, pp. 601-632.

Churchman, C.W. 1971. The Design of Inquiry Systems. New York: Basic Books.

Ciborra, C., Reframing the Role of Computers in Organizations, in Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Information Systems, L. Gallegos, R. Welke, J. Wetherbe (eds.), Indianapolis (1985) pp. 57­69.

Clegg, S. and Dunkerley, D. (1980), Organization, Class and Control, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

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Cooley, M., (1980), Architect or Bee? The Human/Technology Ralationship, Hand and Brain Publication, Slough, England.

Cooper, R. (1988): "Review of Management Information Systems Research: A Management Support Perspective," Information Processing & Management. 24(1), 73-102.

Cotterman, W. and Senn, J. (Eds.) (1991): Challenges and Strategies for Research in Systems Development. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.

Couger, J.D., Evolution of Systems Development Techniques, in J.D. Couger, M. Cotter and R. Knapp (eds.), Advanced System Development/ Feasibility Techniques, (New York: J. Wiley & Sons, 1982).

Couger, J. D., Colter, M. and Knapp, R. (eds.) Advanced Systems Development/Feasibility Techniques, (New York: J. Wiley & Sons, 1982).

Culnan, M. (1986): The Intellectual Development of Management Information Systems, 1972-1982: A Co-Citation Analysis. Management Science. 32(2) February, 156-172.

Culnan, M. (1987): Mapping the Intellectual Structure of MIS, 1980-1985: A Co-Citation Analysis. MIS Quarterly. 11(3) September, 341-353.

Culnan, M. and Markus, M. L. (1987): "Information Technology," in Jablin, F., Putnam, L., Roberts, K., and Porter, L. (Eds.) Handbook of Organizational Communication: An Interdisciplinary Perspective, Beverly Hills: Sage, pp. 420-443.

Culnan, M. and Swanson, E.B. (1986): Research in Management Information Systems, 1980-1984: Points of Work and Relevance. MIS Quarterly, 10(3) September, 286-301.

Dahlbom, C. and Mathiassen, L. (1993): Computers in Context, Blackwell Scientific, Oxford.

Dahrendorf, R., Class and Class Conflict in Industrial Society, (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1959).

Datta, L. (1994) Paradigm Wars: A Basis for Peaceful Coexistence and Beyond. In The Qualitative-Quantitative Debate: New Perspectives (Edited by Reichardt, C.S. and Rallis, S.F.) Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, 53-70.

Davenport, T. and Markus, M. L., (1999) Rigor vs. Relevance Revisted: Response to Benbasat and Zmud. MIS Quarterly 23, No.1, 19-23.

Davies, L. and Mitchell, G. (1994): "The Dual Nature of the Impact of IT on Organizational Transformations", In Baskerville, R., Smithson, S., Ngwenyama, O. and DeGross, J. (eds.) Transforming Organizations with Information Technology, North-Holland, Amsterdam, pp.243-261.

Deetz, S., (1996) Describing Differences in Approaches to Organization Science: Rethinking Burrell and Morgan and Their Legacy. Organization Science 7, No. 2, 191-207.

Denning, P., Comer, D., Gries, D., Mulder, M., Tucker, A. Turner, A.J., and Young, P. (1989): "Computing as a discipline", Final report of the task force on the core of computer science, Communications of the ACM, January, pp. 9­23.

Derrida, J. (1973), Speech and Phenomenon, Northwestern University Press, Evanston, Ill.

Deshpande, R. (1983), "Paradigms Lost: On Theory and Method in Research in Marketing," Journal of Marketing, 46 (Fall), 101-110.

Dickson, G.W. (1981): Management information systems: Evolution and status. In Yovitz, M. (Ed.) Advances in Computers. Vol.20. New York: Academic Press, 1-29.

Dickson, G.W., Senn, J. and Chervany, N. (1977): Research in management information systems: The Minnesota experiments. Management Science. 23(9): 913-923.

Dreyfus, H. 1982. What Computers Can't Do. New York: Harper & Row.

Dreyfus, H. and Dreyfus, S. 1986. Mind over Machine - the Power of Human Intuition and Expertise in the Era of the Computer. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

Dreyfus, H., and Rabinow, P. (1982): Michel Foucault - Beyond Structuralism and Hermeneutics, 2nd edition, The Uniersity of Chicago Press, Chicago.

Ehn, P., Work-Oriented Design of Computer Artifacts, (Stockholm: Arbetslivscentrum, 1988).

Episkopou, D., The theory and practice of information systems methodologies: a grounded theory of methodology evolution, unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of East Anglia, Dec. 1987

Faia, M., 1986, Dynamic Functionalism: Strategy and Tactics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

Farhoomand, A. (1987): Scientific Progress of Management Information Systems, Data Base, Summer, 48-56.

Feldman, M. and March, J. (1981): "Information in Organizations as Signal and Symbol," Administrative Science Quarterly, 26(2), pp. 171-186.

Feyerabend, P. (1975), Against Method, Thetford, England: Lowe and Brydone.

Flood, R. (1990): Liberating Systems Theory. New York: Plenum Press.

Floyd C., Zullighoven H., Budde R., Keil­Slavik R. (Eds.), (1992), Software Development and Reality Construction, Berlin, Springer

Forester, J. (1989): Planning in the Face of Power. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Friedman, A., and Cornford, D., (1989): Computer Systems Development: History, Organization and Implementation, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, United Kingdom

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Gable, G.G., (1994) Integrating case study and survey research methods: an example in information systems. European Journal of Information Systems 3, No.2, 112-126.

Galliers, R. and Land, F., Choosing appropriate information systems research methodologies, Communications of the ACM, Vol.30, No.11, November 1987, pp. 900-902.

Galliers, R. and Land, F., The importance of laboratory experimentation in IS research: a response, Communications of the ACM, Vol.31, No.12, December 1988, pp. 1504-1505.

Garfinkel, H. (1967): Studies in Ethnomethodology, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs.

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Giddens, A., Sociology, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 2nd ed, 1987

Giddens, A., Studies in Social and Political Theory, (London: Hutchinson 1977).

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Goldkuhl, G. and Lyytinen, K., A Language Action View of Information Systems, in Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Information Systems, (eds.) Ginzberg M., Ross C., (Ann Arbor, Michigan 1982) pp. 13­30.

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Hirschheim, R., "Information Systems Epistemology: An Historical Perspective", R. Hirschheim, in Research Methods in Information Systems, E. Mumford, R. Hirschheim, G. Fitzgerald and T. Wood­Harper, (eds.), North­Holland, Amsterdam, September 1985, pp.13­35.

Hirschheim, R. (June 1986): "The Effect of A Priori Views on the Social Implications of Computing: The Case of Office Automation", ACM Computing Surveys, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 165­195.

Hirschheim, R. and Klein, H., Four paradigms of information systems development, Communications of the ACM, Vol.32, No.10, October 1989, pp. 1199-1216.

Hirschheim, R. and H. Klein, "Paradigmatic Influences on Information Systems Development Methodologies: Evolution and Conceptual Advances", in Advances in Computers, Vol.34, M. Yovits (ed.), Academic Press, New York, 1992, pp.293-392.

Hirschheim, R. and H. Klein, "Realizing Emancipatory Principles in Information Systems Development: The Case for ETHICS", MIS Quarterly, Vol. 18, No. 1, March 1994, pp.83-105.

Hirschheim, R., H. Klein and K. Lyytinen, "Control, Sense-Making and Argumentation: Articulating and Exploring the Intellectual Structures of Information Systems", Proceedings of the Fifth Australasian Conference on Information Systems, G. Shanks and D. Arnott (eds.), Melbourne, Australia, September 27-29, 1994, pp.1-25.

Hirschheim, R., H. Klein and M. Newman,"Information Systems Development as Social Action: Theoretical Perspective and Practice", OMEGA, Vol.19, No.6, 1991, pp.587-608.

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